He was thirtieth
Sultan of Ottoman Empire who was also a musician, poet, calligraphist (B. July
20th, 1785, Istanbul - D. July 1st, 1839, Istanbul). He
was the son of Mustafa IV, father of Abdülmecid. His mother was Nakşıdil
Sultan. His education was supervised by his grandfather Sultan Selim III
himself. One year prior to his accession to the throne, he was elected as the heir
apparent by Sultan Mustafa IV, since there wasn’t any other male member of the
House of Ottoman. Rusçuk Landed Proprietor Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, went to
Istanbul to enthrone Selim III, who had been dethroned by Rebellion of Kabakçı
Mustafa, once again and dethroned Sultan Mustafa IV who had acted with the
rebels. When Alemdar Mustafa Pasha entered the palace, he figured out that
Selim III had been slain, he enthroned Mahmud II instead, who barely saved his
life from the murderers (28th of July 1808).
When Sultan Mahmud
II ascended to the throne, the Russians had been waging war against Ottomans.
In accordance with the agreement that had been signed with Britain in 1809, it
was decided to maintain the war against the Russians. The issues between France
and Russia and exhaustion of the Ottoman armies by prolonged wars forced both
sides to sign a peace treaty. The Kaçar Dynasty in Persia, who lost vast lands
to Russia in North Azerbaijan and Caucasia by the Treaty of Gülistan in 1813, tried
to compensate those losses by invading Ottoman lands with the provocations of
some European countries and so they attacked the cities of Baghdad and Şehrizor.
Because of the incidents along the borders and increasing attacks of Persians,
Mahmud II had to declare a war against Iran (1820). After the heavy losses of
the Persian army, Kaçar sovereign Feth Ali Şah sued for peace and Erzurum agreement
was signed.
Also the Greeks were under the influence of
the French Revolution (1789) in the Ottoman Empire, which was a multinational
state. The Greeks, who took advantages of the rebellion of Tepedelenli Ali Pasha,
and with the provocations of Russia and European countries, rose against the Ottoman
ruling. Patriarch Gregorios V was executed on 22nd April 1821 by
the Grand Vizier Benderli Ali Pasha since he had been accused to be involved in
the rebellion. The revolt that had started in Wallachia was suppressed in a
little while. Second revolt was staged in Mora. The united armada of Russia,
Britain and France, which raided the port Navarino of Mora, destroyed the
anchored Ottoman Navy by bombardment (20th of October 1827). Russia
waged a new war against Ottoman Empire in response to the demand of the war
compensation by Sultan Mahmud II regarding the incidents resulted in the
Ottoman Navy’s being set to fire in Navarin (1828). Ottomans were defeated by the
Russians. Mahmud II was
constrained to sign the Edirne Treaty with the Russians in 1829. A year later the French invaded Algeria.
Khedive of Egypt Mehmed Ali Pasha believed that this was a great opportunity and
started to attack and reached Kütahya by defeating Ottoman armies several times. Mahmud II asked for help from the old
nemesis Russia against his own governor. After the Russian forces were settled in Bosporus, the
French and the British ambassadors forced Mehmed Ali Pasha to sign a peace.
Sultan Mahmud
II disbanded Janissary Corps and founded a new army organization called Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye during
his rule. This newly founded army did not have a notable success against the
Russians. The Russians captured the ports of Anapa and Poti as well as Ahıska and
Ahılkelek in the east. Russian Merchant vessels acquired the rights of passage
through the Turkish straits by means of Treaty of Hünkar İskelesi, which was
accepted and signed by Mahmud II in 1833.
Ottoman Empire accepted to pay war compensation to Russia.
Kavalalı
Mehmet Ali Pasha had helped Sultan Mahmud II during the Revolt of Mora on
condition that he would have been given the titles of Governor of Mora and
Girit. Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Pasha, who
suppressed the revolt of Mora, didn’t send a force to help against Russia even
though the Ottomans had asked for it. Kavalalı, who demanded the title of
governor of Syria instead of Mora, in response to be refused to be given the
title of governor of Mora, sent his son İbrahim Pasha against Abdullah Pasha, Governor
of Akka, who had not paid his debts. During the revolt, İbrahim Pasha went
beyond the Toros Mounts capturing the cities of Akka, Damascus, Hama and Syria.
The forces of İbrahim Pasha defeated the Ottoman forces in Adana and Konya.
As it is
understood, Mahmud II found himself in a state of inner conflict and
developments, which began before his accession to the throne when he was twenty-three
years old. But as he adopted the renovation movements in Europe, he proceeded
that way. He gave due importance to
justice affairs, he had new laws and regulations prepared so he was called
“Adlî”. In Ottoman Empire, the modernization movements in essence started in
the middle of the 18th century. On the other hand, for a long time,
the state continuously lost lands. So the problem, which the state needed to struggle,
had required an instant solution for the military weakness. Undoubtedly the basis
of the military problems depended on the economic, financial, social, political
problems.
Since, not
only but most urgent problem for the officials , was to reinforce the empire
military, modernization movements started with military area, namely in the
army. The Janissary corps, which was the center army of the Ottoman Empire till
that time, continuously lost the battles they entered and became a state in a
state also, needed to be abolished. The Janissary corps stayed out of military
training and discipline. But abolishing the Janissary Corps was a hard and
dangerous attempt in both militarily and politically. Even though the janissary
corps had weakened, it required a new force to close out this sole central
military force which was impossible to be corrected. For that reason, “Nizam-ı Cedid” was founded in the era of
Selim III.
Sultan
Mahmud II, who tried to make military and administrative reformations, founded
a new military organization named Sekban-ı
Cedid (October 14th, 1808). But the Janissaries didn’t want an
alternative force which might have been a rival. They succeeded to disband Sekban-ı Cedid by rising up. After
founding a new military organization named Eşkinci,
a new rising up against Sultan Mahmud II occurred. Sultan Mahmud II disbanded
the Janissary corps, which became a bleeding wound on the body of the Empire,
within an event named Vaka-i Hayriye
(15th June, 1826). After disbanding the Janissary corps, a new
military organization named Asakir-i
Mansure-i Muhammediye was founded.
Alemdar
Mustafa Pasha, who believed that the reforms had to be adopted by the
provincial governors and officials, signed an agreement called Sened-i İttifak with local sovereigns in
the era of Sultan Mahmud II. According to this agreement, the sovereign would have
stood by the central administration and would have supported the reforms; in
contrast the Sultan would have accorded the acquired rights of the sovereigns.
With Sened-i Ittifak, the sovereigns
would have vested a political legitimacy against the absolute authority of the
sultan. It was impossible for the authority of the sultan to accept to have
partners with another force(s) and this was incongruous with the nature and the
administrative constitution of the Ottoman Empire. So Sened-i Ittifak, which had anyway been born dead, wasn’t long-lasting.
After a short while Sultan Mahmud II eliminated the sovereigns one by one by
taking over the governance and reinforced the central authority.
During his
life, Mahmud II, who noticed the inclining of the Ottoman Empire, tried to
restore the order comply with Western modernization. Thus he thought he could
stop the ongoing incline. So he adopted dress regulations (March 3rd,
1829) which banned the public officers to dress turban, quilted turban, shalwar
and sandal. Instead fez, trousers and jacket would be dressed. He acted as the European
sovereigns by shifting the life in Palace. He had his beard cut, his picture
hung in public offices and worn trousers. The people, who weren’t able to
understand the necessity of these reforms, called Mahmud II “the unbeliever
sultan”. Inspiring by the western foundations, a population census conducted
considering only men (1831). Thus he could have found out human and wealth
resources of the empire to sustain the newly established army.
Also in the
era of Mahmud II, permanent embassies were founded in the significant cities of
Europe. “Takvim-i Vekayi” the first
official gazette was published (November 1st, 1831). Besides “madrasah”, western style schools opened and students were sent to
Europe. “Divan”, the traditional government, was abolished and ministerial
“Cabinet” was founded. On 30th March 1838, the “office of Grand
Vizier” was exchanged with “Başvekalet”
(Prime Ministry) and Grand Vizier would have been called “Başvekil” (Prime Minister).
“Müsadere”, the procedure of confiscating the commodities of the dismissed
or the deceased public servants, was ended. Also, “Darü’ş Şuray-ı Bab-ı Ali”, which was helping the state with the reform
movements and “Meclis-i Vâlâ-yı Ahkâm-ı
Adliye”, which dealt with the cases between government and public, were
founded. By a publication of royal decree, it was decided to start compulsory
and free elementary education. “Rüştiye”,
the middle school, and “Mekteb-i Maarif-i
Adliye”, in which students were
trained to become public servants, “Tıbbiye”,
school of medicine, and “Harbiye”, war
Academy, were opened. The Postal Office organization was founded and quarantine
regulations was held. The citizens, who were traveling in the empire, should
have had a free pass certificate and the ones, who were traveling abroad should
have had passport.
Sultan
Mahmud II died on account of tuberculosis on 1st July 1839 in the
villa of his sister Esma Sultan in Çamlıca before the arrival of the news of
defeat of the Ottoman Army against Egyptian Army in Nizip. With a big funeral
ceremony and tears of the public, he was buried in the tomb of Mahmud II, which
was built by Ohannes Dadyan and Boğos Dadyan brothers in Divanyolu near
Çemberlitaş, by the order of his son Abdülmecid.
In the
history of Ottoman Empire, Sultan Mahmud II, who was one of the prominent
reformist sultans along with Selim III, was described as a sultan hard and
ruthless and also as an artist, as a Mevlevi and as an alcohol addict.
According to this information, he was recorded as a valuable composer in
Turkish music literature and under his sovereign many great composers appeared
also he composed twenty five compositions. One of these compositions was a
march in acemaşiran maqam, that he composed for the army Asâkir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye
he founded. So he was the first march composer in our music history.
Also he was closely interested in Western music and provided the entry of this
music style into Turkey. The sultan, who was a poet, used the pseudonym “Adlî “and
was a famous calligraphist. He had great success in writing calligraphic style
of Celî.
While some
of the historians evaluate him as the greatest Sultan after Kanunî, the
Magnificent Süleyman, the others criticize him because his attempts of
westernization were only formal.